The Production of Speech The Physiological Aspect - Cruttenden (2008; 7-11), Filologia angielska, Phonetics and ...
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//-->age of three but man y wlll take at least u ntil the age o f ilvt eo mMttr th e systemofcoruooa.nts.Thwlittle sptdal guidance busuallynett>S.1ry(orle:unlngvoYto-elsbutolttnparticularguidan«will hclp c.hUdren tomasurthtso hlnos are given In the varlou$ subso<tions in thisboo!>about dlffkultk'> whichrouns chlldltn mayand thesortol&-ldanct whirh may ...... them (....!or txample,§§3.7. I, 9.2.3, 10.6, 11.4, 11.6.6).2The Production of Speech:The Physiological Aspect1.3.3Acquiring English as an Additional Languagethis book was first written, learners learning English as an U orfoTeignlanguage were! considered to h:we on l)• two possible models: the Oritlsh one,Received Pron un clallo n (RP). and the Amer1can one. General AmeriCiln {GA).This bookrepresentedadetailed description of target RP.Therewas someat.lvlc:ein the sectio ns o nIndividualvowels and consonants about the I)Jirtlcular prOb·which SJK'l•kcrs from different Ll backgrounds might'l'hls advice hasbC<'r'l expanded with every edition. But various changes In the statusorHngllshuro und the: wo rld hnve ledtomore general ch anges. RP hos become less ho mo-geneous and much morevariationwithinRl' h.1s been aUO\'I('dnnd dlscu ued.Oth er 8 r1tlsh accents have become 1-e»and oo the 8 BC.roralmost all regional British d latects areheafd,certalnly In discussion p rogrammesan d lncrta:slngl)• even In news ptcsent.atiotJ.s; so tcuner.s or Engllsh a.s an add-itional la.ngulge need some guidance o n the ilCCenu they01rCllkd y to hcu (sec§7 .6forsomeotthtst).Inmanycountries a roun d t he Yto"'rldEnslishlsu'fd asthelingua (hmt a.and ln InternatiOnal communic:atlon andC'Onftfmcesthecom-moaalmost always English evenin>ituatlOns wh<re""""olthe par·Isa nallvespeakero f English.typesofcommunln tiont \\'0nev.· modelsof English :tredistu.ssOOas targt>tS in Chapter 13.IsfirstAmalgam Ensllsh whlr-h does no t soun d lit e an y particular nattve..spnktr var·lety l>ut lncorponues the more easily leamable characttrlstlcs o r ' 'arlous Engllshesomd which add ltlo naU)' incorporateswhichate!common to panlculuJub-conUnentlllvarlellcs (e.g. / t,d/ as retroflex(t,qjinlndl:a tmd,,,l:istan).Secondlythere Is an International English whkh teduces even fu rthertheand(particula rly)theVO\•tel lnve:n to ry to something even morec:a:slly lcMnab le (e.g. the latter is potentially reduced to nvc: vowels). Thus thebookch tmged a nd evolved from the exposition or RJ>tuan almostlrwarlantrnodelfo rthefo reignlt :unerto one which dcscribcs RP only as one of ao f mod el! for thelearnerofas a seoond o r fo reign language.2.1The Speech ChainSpeechisth e resulto (ahlshlycomplicated serieso(events. The coanmun!Cllltlo nIn sound o r such a simpleconceptas 'lt'sralnlnfinvolves;lnumber o f actlvltiMon thepartor theInthefi rstplace.thefo rmulation ofthecon ctpcwilltab·pbccin thebrain;the flrs.tmay, therefore,besakitobeorpsycholinguistk . TiletlC:n'OUSsy:stfmtransmitsthisme:s501getotheorgansotspetthwbkhwillproduce a panicular pan em ofsound;th U$ the sec:ond lmpor·<ant><ageI<><owpurposesIsarticulatory or physiologicaL The D10Yementolourorgans ofspeechwutcrclltdiSturbanceslntheair;thesevaryingillrbeim-estigated andconstitute th ethirdinowc:haln,the phys·k:ilo r acousUc. Slnc-ecommunia ttongener..lUy requires011listener as well.u1speaker, these stagl!s wlllbereversed:nthe listening end: lht sound waveswillbent'r·receivedbyth e hearin g 3pp.aratus andlnformatJontransmittedJlo ngUnguistit interpretation o f the messa.get_.ktsvousS)'Stemtothebrain, wherePhonetic an alysish aso ftt'n ignoredthe roleortheBut a.ny lnves·hgation ofSpt. «has communication must ultimately"conccrnc:d wlth bo ththe production otnd th e rc:C\!ptton ends.Ourcon cernIswith the: speaker's behaviour and more especially•.•concrete spceeh level, with th e :-cUvity involved in thepfoducUonof:unds.Fo r thb reason, we now examine the articu13tory stngc (the speechtheechanism) to dilcovc:r how the various o rgans behave in order tosounds orspeech.2.2T he Speech Mechanis m«naln of their body's mechoanlsms. Hwn.aru dUfcr fto m ocherable toorganlztth e rangeorsoun ds which they cancmlllnlou:tt'nt system ofcommunlcatk>n.Non.t\u.mananimalsonlyraretyflum ansJlOM<'s .soundsS.m common withmany other an imals. the abtutytoptOdu«:ahighlypr0g_re» beyOnd theoruslng the sounds they P£oducc aJ a reflexorcertainbask s1imuU to slg;n;alrtar,andlilct. 'Nevtrtheless.Hke othermanwhenhe speaks makes use or cx'311.SwhoKprimaryphysiOioglal(unctionl.sunconnectedwithvocalcommunication;Inthose situated ln thettact.the LAAYN.X, conralnlng the VOC'JIfolds, orten,lesscorrectly,(alled the VOCALcolDS, orvoc.:al chordJ (see Fig. 1).1.2.1So urGes ofEne rgy: TheLungsThe most usual sour«o(energy(orour voc-11activityisprovidedby::.nairstreamexpelled from the lungs. 'Thereartlanguagawhichpossesssounds notrequiringtung (pulmonic) 0\lr forthe-irarticulation and. indeed, Jn Eng.llsh weha,•eoneo rt\\'Osounds, such as what wewriteastul-lutand the nolseofencouragementmade tohorses, whJch areproducedwiU1outthe: old of the lungs;but all the cssentlnl sounds of EngUs:h me lung air £or their production. Our utter-ances ore. therefore, lorgoly shaped by the physlologlcalllmlt:lllons Imposedbytheapnc:ltyofour hmgs and bythemuscles which control their action. We areobliged topauseIn articulation Inorderto refill our lungs whh air and thl.s wllltowrnt txtentcondH:IOI\ the dlvLsion of speech into into national phr.ucs (see§11.6.1.1). In thosecases:where the airstrcamisnotavailablerorthe upperorgans of speech(3$when, after theremoval of theLarynx..lung air doesnot-1•--PIJ:Ir)·n.-;oftnt'fl)',such as stommch"ir•hastobeemployed. A new sourceofthls kindimposes morethanthoseexertedbythetunasandvarbrionoftnorgyIsleu dflct..,tly oont«>lled.A numbtr or techniques art avallable lor the investigation or!MactivitydUI·lng spe<eh or tht lun&<andthelr c:ontrollln$musclo.At onttimeolrpressurewilhln the lungs WlUo!Mtvedbythe ttoctionolan air·fill<d balloon in thestomac-h. On the twls of such evidence from a gastrlc balloon, lt was at one timeclalm<d that syllables "'ere lormed bychestpulSes.' Such aprlml!lvt proc<durtwas replacedbythetechnique of electromyography, which de.monstrated thee.Je<:trlcalecllvltyorthoserespiratorymusdesmostconcemcdIn speech.notablythe internallntcrcosta1s; this technique disproved the- rcla.Uonshlp between chestpulses nnd syllables.3 X-ray photography anderscans can reveal the grossmove-mentsorthe ribs and hencebyInferencethe surrounding muscles, although thetechnl<tue of Mllgnctlc Resonance lmaglng (MfU) is1'10Wpreferred on mcdlc.algrounds.reach the mouth but tscapf'S Crom ananJOctalopen.lng Jn the neck), a ntw source1.2.2The Larynx and the Vocal FoldsThel;uynxisocasing, lonned of cartilagea.ndmu.scte, situatedInthepart ofthetrac::he.a. Its forw:ard portion is prominentinthe neckbelowlf)Cchinandlscon'lmonly called thtapple'. Housed within thisstructurefro1nback to from arethevocalcords,rwofokJs ofligamentandelastic tissuewhichmaybl!brought together or partedbythe rotationofthe arytenoid cartUagt:c(attached at the posterior endorthe folds) through muscularactJon.1'he Innerof the$e folds Is typically about 17-22 mm long in males and aboutin fe.m:tlc.>s... '11lc opening between the folds is known asthecwrns.thogttally, the vocal folds actasBvalve whiChi,sableto prevent the entry Intoe trachea and 1\mgs of ony foreignbodyor which may have 1hc effect ofenclosing the airwithinthe lungs to iWlst mus.cu.lat effort on thepoutotthe:...nut:the abdomen. Inusln.gthe vocal cords for speech, the humanhosinoPa(ndelabor.ncd upon thJs original open-or-shut function in thefollow·. .., way• ,..,Fl3. 2):TheaJrstre01mprovk1edbythe lungs undergoes imponant moclUicattoru intheupperputsof the respiratorytractbefore it acqulrMthequaHty of a spttchsound. Fint o£ all, at thetop endoftheTL\CUL\or windpipe,1tthrough1 &uls«-.IOt1moybeholdlightlydo....t, with th• lutOg alr pent upbelowlt.getlc artfcula .P 111frtquentlyoccurs tnEnglish.e.g.'"'hwitpr«tdathe:t.tlef·dock(idoll<J lionof •YOW<IasInnppltJ7;rp1Jorwhenitreinforcestp.t,k/ •• Inort'\'tmthem.. as incottonlko7q]. lt may alsobeheard In'<la.kand YaUop(l9ts: ISI).fou'lsMd t.filk( 1999)..SitUOn(I9SI).J(1967).Atytcnold(11)d$hUy11$(otI'IJ.(b)f<1r11omul b11!'uhing..nncJV(liQC(('$$ $0Ufldl.(c) loose.ly toattthcr and vibr.111in,a(IJ,Or \'OICCdliOUII(IS,tnd!V'idu4ls nnd In some stylts (sc:-c §S.8). Moreover, we :1re able,bymt':ansof,•.ut-atlons in preuwc fromlungs.to modifythesrzeofthepuffof air whichescapes at each vlbr•Uon of tht vOCill foleh; Inoth«words, we can alter theamplhude of thevib1'3tlon, y.,it.ha corres:pood1og change of Joudntn of thesound btatdbya listener. Tht normaJ human being soon learns 10 manipulatebls slotnl mtchanlsm so 1ha1 monddlcaoecltanges ofpllchand loudness areb,howe"·ft,"""et}•largely excrdl«ibythe11chleved. Conuol of thisso that .such variO'ltlonsexceedingly difficult to teachtothose who uebonl deaf, and ader.mgementofpitch and loudness control IS liable to oeturamong thosewhobecometotally deafIn llfe.(4)oneother nctlonofthe larynxshould bementioned. Aquietwh bpermay resuJt merely £rom holding the glottis in the voiceless position throughO\Itspeech. But the more normal whtsJWr,bymeans o f which we are able to commu.-ntcatewlthsomeeast,hwolvelenergetic aruculauon andcon siderable strictureInth e glottalregion.Such a whisper may1nfactbeutteredwith an almosttotalclosureof the gtortis nnd:mescapeo rair Intheregionor the arytenoid cartilages.Flcure 2 7hevocalcMbctSsetndefective spc«;h, such as thatfrom cleftwhen[?)may be substl-ruttdforthtstopwhic-h,because of thena$alair escapt-, cannotbearticulatrd with proper compresSionlnthe mouth cavity.{Z) Thtglottis maybtheldoptnasfor nonnal brnlhlng andforYO!cckssSO<lndsllk< {s)lnJipand{p)infl<tlk.(3) The most common action of the voeiJ folds inspe«hisvlbratot' setinmotiOnbyluns air, which produces voice,0<phOnation;Ihis \lOCal fold vloollooIS a normal feature of all vowd.s orofa con30nantsuchas (z) comparedwithvoiceless1st.Inocdtrto achitve the effectofvoice,the\.'OC.ll fokhareb roughtsuffidcntlyclose togtther that they vibrate whensubJectedto air pressure fromthelungs. 1'hlsofasomewhatundulatorycharacter,ls causedbycom·pressedatrfordng the OJlenlng of the glOttis and the resultant reduced air pres--sure permitting theclastic folds tocome together oncemore; the vibratory effectmay t:'I.Sll)• be feltbytouchlng the neck in the regiono(th e Jnrynx or by puttinga finger over each ear nap when pronoun<:ing a vowel or(zlfor lnstanct. In thetypical spe;>tklng voice of a man. this opening and closing ncUon Is likely toberepeared betweentOOand 150 times in astoor1d1I.e. there :ne thut numbercycles o f vibration (called Hertz, which is abbreviated to H:t); In the case of awoman's voice, this frequency or vibration might well bl.!200 and32S H7.. We arc able, within limits, to consciously vary the spe-ed of vibration ofour vocal rolds In orde:r to change thepitchof the voice; the more rap1d the rateof vibration, the: higheriJthe p itch (an extremely )ow rate or vibfation bclngp.trtly responsible ror whatisusually cal1ed cre;aky voice). Normally the vocalfolds come IOStther rap;clly and pan more slowly, the op<nlng ph.,.ofeacltcyclelhusbeing long«lhan lh< closingpbaJc.Tilis gh-esrise10'modal'(ormat1''01«which bw<dformOSIEngliJh Sp«<h.Oth<rmodesofvibniiOOre-sult In,·Qice qualities. most notably bre3thy and Cteaky voice which areusedIn3numbtr of languages and maybewed In En.glbh byTilesimplestway ofobserving the behaviour or the vocal cords ISbythe use ofa laryngO$COpe, which gives.:astation:uy mirrored Image of theglottis.Usingstroboscoplctrchntques.itl,sposslblt to obtain a moving record and high·speed films have betn made of the ' 'ocal cords:, showing their ae1lon Inbreathlng. produdng voiceandwhisper. andclosedasforag.loual stop.Themodtmltd\ruqueofobsorv•llonIs10 usefibro-opti<<ndoscopycoupl<d11 requiredwithatiny\idtoeamtra.2.2. 3The Resonating Cavities!he:having p;wed through thelarynx, isDO\\'subject tofunhermod..lficauon according totheshapeassumed by thtupper cavities of the ph;rynxandmouth,and accordlf\3 towhether the n asalcavities ate b roughtInto use orn ot. These cavities r\mctlon the principal rcsonaton of the voice produce<llnthe lnrynx.PharynJt Thephar)•ngealcavity (see Fig. I) exten ds from the to pofteg·lracoesoph:\gus, p:uttheepiglottis and the root o f the tongue to thethat the rear of the soft pal:ate.ltIs convenient to ident1Jy these section sornnrnlngthem:laryngopharynx,oropharynx.nasopharynx.·rhe0 vme o f thls long chamber maybeconsiderably mOOtfled by t'htcorut ktltheof chc muscles enclosing the pharynx. by the movement ofraiSedte ton.gue, by the position ofsoft palate which may whenition theut;th e nasopharynx and by the raising or the larynx itself.1epos.ortJguc in the mouth,whetheritIsadvanced or retra('ted"111 am.'C1shoulc]oropharyngeal cavity. the modif'tatioosinthe shape this cavityticorS:,rnelncludtd ln tl)f'dncrfpt:ionofany vowe:I.Jt Is aInsad,are ani lEnsiLshpronunciatiOn that certain"'0\'-els:.e.g. the:la-1vow.:-1strictJonm<t.atcd wlth a strong pharyngeal contraction. AddJt!onaH)'.3 000 •Ybet\\wn thl' lowl't re.arp.trtof the ton,gue and the woall orthet:Tioi
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